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古代法(九)

作者:     来源:     发表时间:2007-08-02     浏览次数:    字号:    
contracts, and Quasi Contracts, which are not contracts at all, has much in common with the famous error which attributed political rights and duties to an Original Compact between the governed and the governor. Long before this theory had clothed itself in definite shape, the phraseology of Roman contract-law had been largely drawn upon to describe that reciprocity of rights and duties which men had always conceived as existing between sovereigns and subjects. While the world was full of maxims setting forth with the utmost positiveness the claims of kings to implicit obedience —— maxims which pretended to have had their origin in the New Testament, but which were really derived from indelible recollections of the Cesarian despotism —— the consciousness of correlative rights possessed by the governed would have been entirely without the means of expression if the Roman law of Obligation had not supplied a language capable of shadowing forth an idea which was as yet imperfectly developed. The antagonism between the privileges of kings and their duties to their subjects was never, I believe, lost sight of since Western history began, but it had interest for few except speculative writers so long as feudalism continued in vigour, for feudalism effectually controlled by express customs the exorbitant theoretical pretensions of most European sovereigns. It is notorious, however, that as soon as the decay of the Feudal System had thrown the medieval constitutions out of working order, and when the Reformation had discredited the authority of the Pope, the doctrine of the divine right of Kings rose immediately into an importance which had never before attended it. The vogue which it obtained entailed still more constant resort to the phraseology of Roman law, and a controversy which had originally worn a theological aspect assumed more and more the air of a legal disputation. A phenomenon then appeared which has repeatedly shown itself in the history of opinion. Just when the argument for monarchical authority rounded itself into the definite doctrine of Filmer, the phraseology, borrowed from the Law of Contract, which had been used in defence of the rights of subjects, crystallised into the theory of an actual original compact between king and people, a theory which, first in English and afterwards, and more particularly, in French hands, expanded into a comprehensive explanation of all the phenomena of society and law. But the only real connection between political and legal science had consisted in the last giving to the first the benefit of its peculiarly plastic terminology. The Roman jurisprudence of Contract had performed for the relation of sovereign and subject precisely the same service which, in a humbler sphere, it rendered to the relation of person bound together by an obligation of “quasi-contract.” It had furnished a body of words and phrases which approximated with sufficient accuracy to the ideas which then were from time to time forming on the subject of political obligation. The doctrine of an Original Compact can never be put higher than it is placed by Dr. Whewell, when he suggests that, though unsound, “it may be a convenient form for the expression of moral truths.”

  The extensive employment of legal language on political subjects previously to the invention of the Original Compact, and the powerful influence which that assumption has exercised subsequently, amply account for the plentifulness in political science of words and conceptions, which were the exclusive creation of Roman jurisprudence. Of their plentifulness in Moral Philosophy a rather different explanation must be given, inasmuch as ethical writings have laid Roman law under contribution much more directly than political speculations, and their authors have been much more conscious of the extent of their obligation. In speaking of moral philosophy as extraordinarily indebted to Roman jurisprudence, I must be understood to intend moral philosophy as understood previously to the break in its history effected by Kant, that is, as the science of the rules governing human conduct, of their proper interpretation and of the limitations to which they are subject. Since the rise of the Critical Philosophy, moral science has almost wholly lost its older meaning, and, except where it is preserved under a debased form in the casuistry still cultivated by Roman Catholic theologians, it seems to be regarded nearly universally as a branch of ontological inquiry. I do not know that there is a single contemporary English writer, with the exception of Dr. Whewell, who understands moral philosophy as it was understood before it was absorbed by metaphysics and before the groundwork of its rules came to be a more important consideration than the rules themselves. So long, however, as ethical science had to do with the practical regimen of conduct, it was more or less saturated with Roman law. Like all the great subjects of modern thought, it was originally incorporated with theology. The science of Moral Theology, as it was at first called, and as it is still designated by the Roman Catholic divines, was undoubtedly constructed, to the full knowledge of its authors, by takin principles of conduct from the system of the Church, and by using the language and methods of jurisprudence for their expression and expansion. While this process went on, it was inevitable that jurisprudence, though merely intended to be the vehicle of thought, should communicate its colour to the thought itself. The tinge received through contact with legal conceptions is perfectly perceptible in the earliest ethical literature of the modern world, and it is evident, I think, that the Law of Contract, based as it is on the complete reciprocity and indissoluble connection of rights and duties, has acted as a wholesome corrective to the predispositions of writers who, if left to themselves, might have exclusively viewed a moral obligation as the public duty of a citizen in the Civitas Dei. But the amount of Roman Law in moral theology becomes sensibly smaller at the time of its cultivation by the great Spanish moralists. Moral theology, developed by the juridical method of doctor commenting on doctor, provided itself with a phraseology of its own, and Aristotelian peculiarities of reasoning and expression, imbibed doubtless in great part from the Disputations on Morals in the academical schools, take the place of that special turn of thought and speech which can never be mistaken by any person conversant with the Roman law. If the credit of the Spanish school of moral theologians had continued, the juridical ingredient in ethical science would have been insignificant, but the use made of their conclusions by the next generation of Roman Catholic writers on these subjects almost entirely destroyed their influence. Moral Theology, degraded into Casuistry, lost all interest for the leaders of European speculation; and the new science of Moral Philosophy, which was entirely in the hands of the Protestants, swerved greatly aside from the path which the moral theologians had followed. The effect was vastly to increase the influence of Roman law on ethical inquiry.

  “Shortly(1*) after the Reformation, we find two great schools of thought dividing this class of subjects between them. The most influential of the two was at first the sect of school known to us as the Casuists, all of them in spiritual communion with the Roman Catholic Church, and nearly all of them affiliated to one or other of her religious orders. On the other side were a body of writer connected with each other by a common intellectual descent from the great author of the treatise De Jure Belli et Pacis, Hugo Grotius. Almost all of the latter were adherents of the Reformation, and though it cannot be said that they were formally and avowedly at conflict with the Casuists, the origin and object of their system were nevertheless essentially different from those of Casuistry. It is necessary to call attention to this difference, because it involves the question of the influence of Roman law on that department of thought with which both systems are concerned. The book of Grotius, though it touches questions of pure Ethics in every page, and though it is the parent immediate or remote of innumerable volumes of formal morality, is not, as is well known, a professed treatise on Moral Philosophy; it is an attempt to determine the Law of Nature, or Natural Law. Now, without entering upon the question, whether the conception of a Law Natural be not exclusively a creation of the Roman jurisconsults, we may lay down that, even on the admission of Grotius himself, the dicta of the Roman jurisprudence as to what parts of known positive law must be taken to be parts of the Law of Nature, are, if not infallible, to be received at all events with the profoundest respect. Hence the system of Grotius is implicated with Roman law at its very foundation, and this connection rendered inevitable —— what the legal training of the writer would perhaps have entailed without it —— the free employment in every paragraph of technical phraseology, and of modes of reasoning, defining, and illustrating, which must sometimes conceal the sense, and almost always the force and cogency, of the argument from the reader who is unfamiliar with the sources whence they have been derived. On the other hand, Casuistry borrows little from Roman law, and the views of morality contended for have nothing whatever in common with the undertaking of Grotius. All that philosophy of right and wrong which has become famous, or infamous, under the name of Casuistry, had its origin in the distinction between Mortal and Venial Sin. A natural anxiety to escape the awful consequences of determining a particular act to be mortally sinful, and a desire, equally intelligible, to assist the Roman Catholic Church in its conflict with Protestantism by disburthening it of an inconvenient theory, were the motives which impelled the authors of the Casuistical philosophy to the invention of an elaborate system of criteria, intended to remove immoral actions, in as many cases as possible, out of the category of mortal offences, and to stamp them as venial sins. The fate of this experiment is matter of ordinary history. We know that the distinctions of Casuistry, by enabling the priesthood to adjust spiritual control to all the varieties of human character, did really confer on it an influence with princes, statesmen, and generals, unheard of in the ages before the Reformation, and did really contribute largely to that great reaction which checked and narrowed the first successes of Protestantism. But beginning in the attempt, not to establish, but to evade —— not to discover a principle, but to escape a postulate —— not to settle the nature of right and wrong, but to determine what was not wrong of a particular nature, —— Casuistry went on with its dexterous refinements till it ended in so attenuating the moral features of actions, and so belying the moral instincts of Our being, that at length the conscience of mankind rose suddenly in revolt against it, and consigned to one common ruin the system and its doctors. The blow, long pending, was finally struck in the Provincial Letters of Pascal, and since the appearance of those memorable Papers, no moralist of the smallest influence or credit has ever avowedly conducted his speculations in the footsteps of the Casuists. The whole field of ethical science was thus left at the exclusive command of the writers who followed Grotius; and it still exhibits in an extraordinary degree the traces of that entanglement with Roman law which is sometimes imputed as a fault, and sometimes the highest of its recommendations, to the Grotian theory Many inquirers since Grotius''s day have modified his principles, and many, of course, since the rise of the Critical Philosophy, have quite deserted them; but even those who have departed most widely from his fundamental assumptions have inherited much of his method of statement, of his train of thought, and of his mode of illustration; and these have little meaning and no point to the person ignorant of Roman jurisprudence.”

  I have already said that, with the exception of the physical sciences, there is no walk of knowledge which has been so slightly affected by Roman law as Metaphysics. The reason is that discussion on metaphysical subjects has always been conducted in Greek, first in pure Greek, and afterwards in a dialect of Latin expressly constructed to give expression to Greek conceptions. The modern languages have only been fitted to metaphysical inquiries by adopting this Latin dialect, or by imitating the process which was originally followed in its formation. The source of the phraseology which has been always employed for metaphysical discussion in modern times was the Latin translations of Aristotle, in which, whether derived or not from Arabic versions, the plan of the translator was not to seek for analogous expressions in any part of Latin literature, but to construct anew from Latin roots a set of phrases equal to the expression of Greek philosophical ideas. Over such a process the terminology of Roman law can have exercised little influence; at most, a few Latin law terms in a transmuted shape have made their way into metaphysical language. At the same time it is worthy of remark that whenever the problems of metaphysics are those which have been most strongly agitated in Western Europe, the thought, if not the language, betrays a legal parentage. Few things in the history of speculation are more impressive than the fact that no Greek-speaking people has ever felt itself seriously perplexed by the great question of Free-will and Necessity: I do not pretend to offer any summary explanation of this, but it does not seem an irrelevant suggestion that neither the Greeks, nor any society speaking and thinking in their language, ever showed the smallest capacity for producing a philosophy of law. Legal science is a Roman creation, and the problem of Free-will arises when we contemplate a metaphysical conception under a legal aspect. How came it to be a question whether invariable sequence was identical with necessary connection? I can only say that the tendency of Roman law, which became stronger as it advanced, was to look upon legal consequences as united to legal causes by an inexorable necessity, a tendency most markedly exemplified in the definition of Obligation which I have repeatedly cited, “Juris vinculum quo necessitate adstringimur alicujus solvendae rei.”

  But the problem of Free-will was theological before it became philosophical, and, if its terms have been affected by jurisprudence, it will be because Jurisprudence had made itself felt in Theology. The great point of inquiry which is here suggested has never been satisfactorily elucidated. What has to be determined, is whether jurisprudence has ever served as the medium through which theological principles have been viewed; whether, by supplying a peculiar language, a peculiar mode of reasoning, and a peculiar solution of many of the problems of life, it has ever opened new channels in which theological speculation could flow out and expand itself. For the purpose of giving an answer it is necessary to recollect what is already agreed upon by the best writers as to the intellectual food which theology first assimilated. It is conceded on all sides that the earliest language of the Christian Church was Greek, and that the problems to which it first addressed itself were those for which Greek philosophy in its later forms had prepared the way. Greek metaphysical literature contained the sole stock of words and ideas out of which the human mind could provide itself with the means of engaging in the profound controversies as to the Divine Persons, the Divine Substance, and the Divine Natures. The Latin language and the meagre Latin philosophy were quite unequal to the undertaking, and accordingly the Western or Latin-speaking provinces of the Empire adopted the conclusions of the East without disputing or reviewing them. “Latin Christianity,” says Dean Milman, “accepted the creed which its narrow and barren vocabulary could hardly express in adequate terms. Yet, throughout, the adhesion of Rome and the West was a passive acquiescence in the dogmatic system which had been wrought out by the profounder theology of the Eastern divines, rather than a vigorous and original examination on her part of those mysteries. The Latin Church was the scholar as well as the loyal partizan of Athanasius.” But when the separation of East and West became wider, and the Latin-speaking Western Empire began to live with an intellectual life of its own, its deference to the East was all at once exchanged for the agitation of a number of questions entirely foreign to Eastern speculation. “While Greek theology (Milman, Latin Christianity, Preface, 5) went on defining with still more exquisite subtlety the Godhead and the nature of Christ” —— “while the interminable controversy still lengthened out and cast forth sect after sect from the enfeebled community” —— the Western Church threw itself with passionate ardour into a new order of disputes, the same which from those days to this have never lost their interest for any family of mankind at any time included in the Latin communion. The nature of Sin and its transmission by inheritance —— the debt owed by man and its vicarious satisfaction —— the necessity and sufficiency of the Atonement —— above all the apparent antagonism between Free-will and the Divine Providence —— these were the points which the West began to debate as ardently as ever the East had discussed the articles of its more special creed. Why is it then that on the two sides of the line which divides the Greek-speaking from the Latin-speaking provinces there lie two classes of theological problems so strikingly different from one another? The historians of the Church have come close upon the solution when they remark that the new problems were more “practical,” less absolutely speculative, than those which had torn Eastern Christianity asunder, but none of them, so far as I am aware, has quite reached it. I affirm without hesitation that the difference between the two theological systems is accounted for by the fact that, in passing from the East to the West, theological speculation had passed from a climate of Greek metaphysics to a climate of Roman law. For some centuries before these controversies rose into overwhelming importance, all the intellectual activity of the Western Romans had been expended on jurisprudence exclusively. They had been occupied in applying a peculiar set of principles to all the combinations in which the circumstances of life are capable of being arranged. No foreign pursuit or taste called off their attention from this engrossing occupation, and for carrying it on they possessed a vocabulary as accurate as it was copious, a strict method of reasoning, a stock of general propositions on conduct more or less verified by experience, and a rigid moral philosophy. It was impossible that they should not select from the questions indicated by the Christian records those which had some affinity with the order of speculations to which they were accustomed, and that their manner of dealing with them should borrow something from their forensic habits. Almost everybody who has knowledge enough of Roman law to appreciate the Roman penal system, the Roman theory of the obligations established by Contract or Delict, the Roman view of Debts and of the modes of incurring, extinguishing, and transmitting them, the Roman notion of the continuance of individual existence by Universal Succession, may be trusted to say whence arose the frame of mind to which the problems of Western theology proved so congenial, whence came the phraseology in which these problems were stated, and whence the description of reasoning employed in their solution. It must only be recollected that Roman law which had worked itself into Western thought was neither the archaic system of the ancient city, nor the pruned and curtailed jurisprudence of the Byzantine Emperors; still less, of course, was it the mass of rules, nearly buried in a parasitical overgrowth of modern speculative doctrine, which passes by the name of Modern Civil Law. I speak only of that philosophy of jurisprudence, wrought out by the great juridical thinkers of the Antonine age, which may. still be partially reproduced from the Pandects of Justinian, a system to which few faults can be attributed except it perhaps aimed at a higher degree of elegance, certainty, and precision, than human affairs will permit to the limits within which human laws seek to confine them.

  It is a singular result of that ignorance of Roman law which Englishmen readily confess, and of which they are sometimes not ashamed to boast, that many English writers of note and credit have been led by it to put forward the most untenable of paradoxes concerning the condition of human intellect during the Roman Empire. It has been constantly asserted, As unhesitatingly as if there were no temerity in advancing the proposition, that from the close of the Augustan era to the general awakening of interest on the points of the Christian faith, the mental energies of the civilised world were smitten with a paralysis. Now there are two subjects of thought —— the only two perhaps with the exception of physical science —— which are able to give employment to all the Powers and capacities which the mind possesses. One of them is Metaphysical inquiry, which knows no limits so long as the mind is satisfied to work on itself; the other is law, which is as extensive as the concerns of mankind. It happens that, during the very period indicated, the Greek-speaking provinces were devoted to one, the Latin Speaking provinces to the other, of these studies. I say nothing of the fruits of speculation in Alexandria and the East, but I confidently affirm that Rome and the West had an occupation in hand fully capable of compensating them for the absence of every other mental exercise, and I add that the results achieved, so far as we know them, were not unworthy of the continuous and exclusive labour bestowed on producing them. Nobody except a professional lawyer is perhaps in a position completely to understand how much of the intellectual strength of individuals Law is capable of absorbing, but a layman has no difficulty in comprehending why it was that an unusual share of the collective intellect of Rome was engrossed by jurisprudence. “The proficiency (2*) of a given community in jurisprudence depends in the long run on the same conditions as its progress in any other line of inquiry; and the chief of these are the proportion of the national intellect devoted to it, and the length of time during which it is so devoted. Now, a combination of all the causes, direct and indirect, which contribute to the advancing and perfecting of a science continued to operate on the jurisprudence of Rome through the entire space between the Twelve Tables and the severance of the two Empires, —— and that not irregularly or at intervals, but in steadily increasing force and constantly augmenting number. We should reflect that the earliest intellectual exercise to which a young nation devotes itself is the study of its laws. As soon as the mind makes its first conscious efforts towards generalisation, the concerns of every-day life are the first to press for inclusion within general rules and comprehensive formulas. The popularity of the pursuit on which all the energies of the young commonwealth are bent is at the outset unbounded; but it ceases in time. The monopoly of mind by law is broken down. The crowd at the morning audience of the great Roman jurisconsult lessens. The students are counted by hundreds instead of thousands in the English Inns of Court. Art, Literature, Science, and Politics, claim their share of the national intellect; and the practice of jurisprudence is confined within the circle of a profession, never indeed limited or insignificant, but attracted as much by the rewards as by the intrinsic recommendations of their science. This succession of changes exhibited itself even more strikingly at Rome than in England. To the close of the Republic the law was the sole field for all ability except the special talent of a capacity for generalship. But a new stage of intellectual progress began with the Augustan age, as it did with our own Elizabethan era. We all know what were its achievements in poetry and prose; but there are some indications, it should be remarked, that, besides its efflorescence in ornamental literature, it was on the eve of throwing out new aptitude for conquest in physical science. Here, however, is the point at which the history of mind in the Roman State ceases to be parallel to the routes which mental progress had since then pursued. The brief span of Roman literature, strictly so called, was suddenly closed under a variety of influences, which though they may partially be traced it would be improper in this place to analyse. Ancient intellect was forcibly thrust back into its old courses, and law again became no less exclusively the proper sphere for talent than it had been in the days when the Romans despised philosophy and poetry as the toys of a childish race. Of what nature were the external inducements which, during the Imperial period, tended to draw a man of inherent capacity to the pursuits of the jurisconsult may best be understood by considering the option which was practically before him in his choice of a profession. He might become a teacher of rhetoric, a commander of frontier-posts, or a professional writer of panegyrics. The only other walk of active life which was open to him was the practice of the law. Through that lay the approach to wealth, to fame, to office, to the council-chamber of the monarch —— it may be to the very throne itself.”

  The premium on the study of jurisprudence was so enormous that there were schools of law in every part of the Empire, even in the very domain of Metaphysics. But, though the transfer of the seat of empire to Byzantium gave a perceptible impetus to its cultivation in the East, jurisprudence never dethroned the pursuits which there competed with it. Its language was Latin, an exotic dialect in the Eastern half of the Empire. It is only of the West that we can lay down that law was not only the mental food of the ambitious and aspiring, but the sole aliment of all intellectual activity. Greek philosophy had never been more than a transient fashionable taste with the educated class of Rome itself, and when the new Eastern capital had been created, and the Empire subsequently divided into two, the divorce of the Western provinces from Greek speculation, and their exclusive devotion to jurisprudence, became more decided than ever. As soon then as they ceased to sit at the feet of the Greeks and began to ponder out a theology of their own, the theology proved to be permeated with forensic ideas and couched in a forensic phraseology. It is certain that this substratum of law in Western theology lies exceedingly deep. A new set of Greek theories, the Aristotelian philosophy, made their way afterwards into the West and almost entirely buried its indigenous doctrines. But when at the Reformation it partially shook itself free from their influence, it instantly supplied their place with Law. It is difficult to say whether the religious system of Calvin or the religious system of the Arminians has the more markedly legal character.

  The vast influence of the specific jurisprudence of Contract produced by the Romans upon the corresponding department of modern Law belongs rather to the history of mature juris prudence than to a treatise like the present. It did not make itself felt till the school of Bologna founded the legal science of modern Europe. But the fact that the Romans, before their Empire fell, had so fully developed the conception of Contract becomes of importance at a much earlier period than this. Feudalism, I have repeatedly asserted, was a compound of archaic barbarian usage with Roman law; no other explanation of it is tenable, or even intelligible. The earliest social forms of the feudal period differ in little from the ordinary associations in which the men of primitive civilisations are everywhere seen united. A Fief was an organically complete brotherhood of associates whose proprietary and personal rights were inextricably blended together. It had much in common with an Indian Village Community and much in common with a Highland clan. But still it presents some phenomena which we never find in the associations which are spontaneously formed by beginners in civilisation. True archaic communities are held together not by express rules, but by sentiment, or, we should perhaps say, by instinct; and new comers into the brotherhood are brought within the range of this instinct by falsely pretending to share in the blood relationship from which it naturally springs. But the earliest feudal communities were neither bound together by mere sentiment nor recruited by a fiction. The tie which united them was Contract, and they obtained new associates by contracting with them. The relation of the lord to the vassals had originally been settled by express engagement, and a person wishing to engraft himself on the brotherhood by commendation or infeudation came to a distinct understanding as to the conditions on which he was to be admitted. It is therefore the sphere occupied in them by Contract which principally distinguishes the feudal institutions from the unadulterated usages of primitive races. The lord had many of the characteristics of a patriarchal chieftain, but his prerogative was limited by a variety of settled customs traceable to the express conditions which had been agreed upon when the infeudation took place. Hence flow the chief differences which forbid us to class the feudal societies with true archaic communities. They were much more durable and much more various; more durable, because express rules art less destructible than instinctive habits, and more various, because the contracts on which they were founded were adjusted to the minutest circumstances and wishes of the persons who surrendered or granted away their lands. This last consideration may serve to indicate how greatly the vulgar opinions current among us as to the origin of modern society stand in need of revision. It is often said that the irregular and various contour of modern civilisation is due to the exuberant and erratic genius of the Germanic races, and it is often contrasted with the dull routine of the Roman Empire. The truth is that the Empire bequeathed to modern society the legal conception to which all this irregularity is attributable; if the customs and institutions of barbarians have one characteristic more striking than another, it is their extreme uniformity.

  NOTES: 1. The passage quoted is transcribed with slight alterations from a paper contributed by the author to the Cambridge Essays for 1856. 2. Cambridge Essays, 1856.

  Henry Sumner Maine

第九章 契约的早期史

  关于我们所处的时代,能一见而立即同意接受的一般命题是这样一个说法,即我们今日的社会和以前历代社会之间所存在的主要不同之点;乃在于契约在社会中所占范围的大小。这个说法所根据的现象,有些都是常常被提出来受到注意、批评和颂扬的。我们决不会毫不经心地不理会到:在无数的事例中,旧的法律是在人出生时就不可改变地确定了一个人的社会地位,现代法律则允许他用协议的方法来为其自己创设社会地位;真的,对于这个规定有几个例外,不断地在热烈愤慨下遭到废弃。例如,黑奴问题,到现在仍被剧烈争论着,其真正争执之点是:奴隶的身分究竟是不是属于过去的制度,又如雇主和工人之间能合乎现代道德的唯一关系,究竟是不是完全由契约决定的一种关系。承认过去和现在之间存在这种差别,是最著名的现代思想的实质。可以断言,“政治经济学”是今日有相当进步的唯一伦理研究部门,它将会和生活的事实不相符合,如果“强行法”对它一度占据的领域的绝大部分不肯加以放弃,并且人们不能具有直到最近才允许他们有的决定其自己行为规律的一种自由。受到政治经济学训练的大多数人都有这样一种偏见,认为他们的科学所根据的一般真理是有可能变为普遍性的真理的,并且,当他们把它作为一种艺术而运用时,他们一般都着重于扩大“契约”的领域,缩小“强行法”的领域,只有在必须依靠法律以强制“契约”的履行时,才是例外。一些思想家在这种思潮影响下作出的鼓动,开始在西方世界中很强烈地感觉到。

  立法几乎已经自己承认它和人类在发现、发明以及大量积累财富各方面的活动无法并驾齐驱;即使在最不进步的社会中,法律亦逐渐倾向于成为一种仅仅的表层,在它下面,有一种不断在变更着的契约规定的集合,除非为了要强迫遵从少数基本原理或者为了处罚违背信用必须诉求法律外,法律绝少干预这些契约的规定。

  社会研究,因为它们必须依靠对法律现象的考究,是在一种非常落后的状态中,因此,我们发现这些真理不为今天流行着的有关社会进步的日常用语所承认,是不足为奇的。这些日常用语比较符合我们的偏见,而不符合我们的信念。当“契约”所根据的道德成为问题的时候,绝大多数的人都更强有力地不顾把道德认为是进步的,我们中有许多人几乎本能地不愿承认我们同胞所有的善意和信任,会比古时代更为广泛传布,也不愿承认我们当代的礼仪中有能和古代世界中的忠诚相比拟的东西。有的时候,这些先入之见的声势为诈欺行为所大大加强,这种诈欺行为是在它们被目睹之前所未曾听到过的,并且以其犯罪行为而使人震骇,更以其复杂而令人惊异。但这些欺诈行为的性质明白地显示出:在它们成为可能之前,它们所破坏的道德义务必定已超过了一定比例的发展。由于多数人笃守信义,就给了少数人不顾信义的方便,因此,当巨大的不诚实的事件发生时,必然的结论是,在一般的交易中都显现出审慎的正直,只在特殊情形中才予犯法者以可乘之机。如果我们坚持要从法律学上的反映来看道德史,并且把我们的眼光向着“犯罪”法而不是向着 “契约”法,则我们必须细心谨慎,才不致错误。最古罗马法所处理的唯一形式的不诚实,是“窃盗罪”。在我写本书的时候,英国刑法中最新的一章,是企图为 “受托人”的欺诈行为作出处罚的规定。从这对比中所可能得到的正当推论,并不是原始罗马人比我们有更高的道德观念。我们应该说,在他们和我们相隔开的时代中间,道德已经从一个很粗浅的概念进步到一种高度精炼的概念——从把财产权视为绝对神圣,发展到把仅仅由于片面信用而产生的权利视为有权受到刑事法律的保护。

  法学家的各种明确理论,在这一点上,并不比普通人的意见更接近真理。试从罗马法律家的见解开始,我们发现他们的见解和道德及法律进步的真正历史并不符合。在有一类的契约中,以缔约两造的善意担保为唯一要件,这种契约他们特别称之为“万民法契约”(Contracts juris gentium)。

  并且,虽然这些契约无疑地是罗马制度中最迟产生的,但其所用的用语,如果我们可以从中吸取其含义的话,实包含着:这些契约比在罗马法中处理的某种其他形式的约定还要古远,在罗马法中忽视一个专门手续程序,就要像误会或欺骗一样损害到责任。然而所谓它们是古远的说法,是模糊的、暧昧的,是只能通过“现在”方能理解的;所谓“国际法契约”被明白地看作人类在“自然状态”下所知道的一种“契约”,也要到罗马法律家的用语变成了对罗马法律家的思想方式已不再能理解的一个时代的用语之后才能理解。卢梭兼有了法律上的和通俗的错误。在“论艺术和科学对道德的影响”(Dissertation on the Effects of Art and Science upon Morals)——这是他作品中引人注意的第一部,并且是他最无保留地申述他的意见使他成为一个学派首创人的一篇作品——中,他一再指出古波斯人的诚实和善意,认为这些是原始人天真的特征,已经逐渐为文明所消灭了的;到一个较后的时期,他把他所有理论完全放在一个原始“社会契约”学理的基础上。所谓“社会契约”,是我们正在讨论的错误所形成的最有系统的一种形式。这个理论虽然为政治热情所抚育而趋于重要,但所有它的营养则完全来自法律学的纯理论。首先受它吸引的著名英国人士所以重视它,主要是由于可以在政治上利用它,但是,正象我现在解释的,如果政治家不是长期地用法律用语来进行争辩,则他们将决不可能达到它。同时这个理论的英国著者也不是对于这理论的深远影响茫然不见的,因为法国人就是经过这种推荐而承继到它的。法国人的著作显示出:他们认为这个理论可以用来说明一切政治现象,同时也可以说明一切社会现象。他们看到在他们时代中已经非常触目的事实,即人类所遵守的现实法规中,比较大的部分都是由“契约” 设定的,只有少数是由“强行法”设定的。但是,他们对于法律学中这两个要素的历史关系,或者是一无所知,或者是漠不关心。因此,他们提出一切“法律”源自 “契约”的理论,其目的是在满足他们的尝试,要把所有法律学归因于一个一致渊源的纯理论,同时也在规避主张“强行法”来自神授的各种学理。在另一个思想阶段中,他们可能满足于把他们的理论停留在一个巧妙假设或一个便利的口头公式的情况中。但这个时代,是在法律迷信的统治之下。“自然状态”已不再是似是而非的东西了,因此,在坚持“社会契约”是一种历史事实时,就很容易使“法律”起源于契约的理论获得一种虚伪的真实性和明确性。

  我们自己的一代已经摈弃了这些错误的法律理论,部分由于我们已经超过了他们所处的智力状态,部分由于我们已经几乎完全停止再在这类主题上进行推理。喜爱研究的人们在目前所乐于从事的工作,以及答复我们祖先对社会状态起源所持纯理论的工作,是对现在存在和在我们眼前活动的社会进行分析;但是,由于缺少历史的帮助,这种分析就时常退化而成为一种徒然是好奇心的活动,并且特别容易使研究者不能理解和他所习见的有很大不同的社会状态。用我们自己时代的道德观念来评价其他时代的人们,其错误正如假定现代社会机器中的每一个轮子、每一只螺钉在较原始的社会中都有其相对物的那样错误。在用现代风格写成的历史著作中,这类印象繁衍很广,并且都很巧妙地掩盖着它们自己;但是我在法律学的领域中也发现了它们的痕迹,如一般对孟德斯鸠穿插在其“波斯人信札”(Lettres Persanes)中有关“穴居人”(Troglodytes)的小寓言所作的颂扬中。据说“穴居人”是一种人,由于他们系统地破坏其“契约”,因而全部遭受灭亡。如果这个故事表示着著者意中的道德观念,并且是用以暴露这一世纪和上一个世纪曾受到其威胁的一种反社会异端,这诚然是无可指摘的;但如果由它而得到的推论是:一个社会在允约和合意上如果没有给予一种神圣性,而这种神圣性与一个成熟文明所给予的尊敬相类似,这个社会就不可能结合在一起,则它所含有的错误将是非常严重的,它将使我们对于法律史不能作出正确的理解。事实是,“穴居人”完全没有注意到“契约”责任,却曾兴旺起来,建立过强有力的国家。在原始社会组织中,必须首先了解的一点是,个人并不为其自己设定任何权利,也不为其自己设定任何义务。

  他所应遵守的规则,首先来自他所出生的场所,其次来自他作为其中成员的户主所给他的强行命令。在这样制度下,就很少有“契约”活动的余地。同一家族的成员之间(我们得这样来解释证据)是完全不能相互缔结契约的,对于其从属成员中任何一人企图拘束家族而作出的合意,家族有权置之不理。诚然,家族得与其他家族缔结契约,族长得与族长缔结契约,但这种交易在性质上和财产的让与相同,并同样地有许多繁文缛节,只要在履行时忽略其中一个细节就足以使义务归于无效。由于一个人对另外一个人的话加以信赖而产生积极义务,是进步文明最迟缓的胜利品之一。

  无论是“古代法”或是任何其他证据,都没有告诉我们有一种毫无“契约”概念的社会。这种概念在最初出现时,显然是极原始的。在可靠的原始记录中,我们都可以注意到,使我们实践一个允约的习性还没有完全发展,种种罪恶昭彰不信不义的行为常被提到,竟毫无非难,有时反加以赞许。例如,在荷马文学中,优烈锡士的欺诈狡猾,好象是和纳斯佗(Nestor)的智虑明达、海克佗(Hector)的坚毅不拔以及亚济里斯(Achilles)的英雄豪侠处于同等的一种美德。古代法特别使我看到粗糙形式的和成熟时期的“契约”间存在着一个很远的距离。在开始时,法律对于强迫履行一个允约,并不加以干预。使法律执有制裁武器的,不是一个允约,而是附着一种庄严仪式的允约。仪式不但和允约本身有同样的重要性,仪式并且还比允约更为重要;因为成熟的法律学着重于仔细分析据供一个特定的口头同意的心理条件,而在古代法中则着重于附着在仪式上的言语和动作。如果有一个形式被遗漏了或用错了,则誓约就不能强行,但是,在另一方面,如果所有形式经表明已完全正确进行,则纵使以允约是在威胁或欺骗之下作出为辩解,也属徒然。从这样一种古代的看法,转变而成为一个“契约”的熟习观念,其转化过程在法律学史中是显然可见的。在起初,仪式中有一个或二个步骤省略了;后来其他的也简化了或者在某种条件下忽略了;最后,少数特殊的契约从其他契约中分离出来,准许不经任何仪式而缔结定约,这种选定的契约都是些社会交往活动和力量所依靠的。心头的约定从繁文缛节中迟缓地但是非常显著地分离出来,并且逐渐地成为法学专家兴趣集中的唯一要素。

  这种心头约定通过外界行为而表示,罗马人称之为一个“合约”(Pact)或“协议”(Convention);当“协议”一度视为一个“契约”的核心时,在前进中的法律学不久就产生了一种倾向,使契约逐渐和其形式和仪式的外壳脱离。在这以后,形式只在为了要保证真实性和为了要保证谨慎和细心时才加保留。一个“契约”的观念是完全地发展了,或者,用罗马人的用语来说,“契约”是吸收在“合约”中了。

  罗马法律中这个变更过程的历史,是非常有启发性的。在法律学的最初曙光期,用以表示一个“契约”的名词是历史“拉丁语法”学者很熟悉的一个名词。这就是“耐克逊”,契约的两造称为“耐克先”(nexi),这两个用语必须特别注意,由于它们所依据的隐喻特别持久。在一个契约合意下的人们由一个强有力的约束或连锁联结在一起,这个观念一直继续着,直到最后影响着罗马的“契约”法律学;并且由这里顺流而下,它和各种现代观念混合起来。然则在这耐克逊或约束中,究竟包括些什么?从一个拉丁考古学家传下来的一个定义,认为耐克逊是每一种用铜片和衡具的交易(omne quod geritur per fs et libram),这些文字曾引起了许多疑惑。铜片和衡具是“曼企帕地荷”的著名附属物,即在前章中描述过的古代仪式,通过这种仪式“罗马财产”最高形式中的所有权就由一个人移转到另外一个人。“曼企帕地荷”是一种让与,因此就发生了一个困难,因为这样的定义似乎把“契约”和“让与”混淆起来了,而在法律哲学上,它们不仅仅是各别的,而且在实际上是相互对立的。物权(jus in re)、对世权(right in rem),即“对全世界有效的”权利或“财产所有权”,在成熟法律学的分析中是和人权(jus ad rem)、对人权(right in personam),即“对一单独个人或团体有效的”权利或债权,有明显的区别的。

  “让与”转移“财产所有权”,“契约”创设“债权”——然则,这两者怎样会包括在同一的名称或同一的一般概念之下?这和许多相似的困难一样,是由于把显然属于智力发展进步阶段的一种能力,把在实践上混合在一起的各种纯理论观点加以区别的能力,错误地认为属于一个未成形社会的心理状态而产生的。我们有不可误解的有关社会事务状态的各种迹象,证明“让与”和“契约”在实际上是混淆不分的;同时,直到人们在缔约和让与中采用一种各别的实践前,这两个概念的差异从来没有为人们所领会到。

  这里可以看到,我们对古罗马法已具有足够的知识,使我们可以提供一些在法律学萌芽时代各种法律概念和法律用语所遵循的转化方式的大概。它们所经历的变更似乎是从一般到特殊的一种变更;或者,换言之,古代的概念和古代的名词是处于逐渐专门化的过程中。一个古代的法律概念相当于不仅一个而是几个现代概念。一个古代的专门术语可以用来表示许多东西,这些东西在现代法律中分别具有各种不同的名称。如果我们研究下一阶段的法律学史,我们就可以看到次要的概念逐渐地被解脱出来,旧的一般的名称正为特别的名称所代替。旧的一般概念并没有被遗忘,但它已不再包括它起初包括的一种或几种观点。因此同样的,古代的专门术语依旧存在,但它只执行着它以前一度具有的许多职能中的一种。我们可以从许多方面来证明这种现象。例如,各式各样的“父权”在过去曾一度被认为是属于同一性质的,它也无疑地被归属于一个名称之下。祖先所行使的权力,不论它是对家族或是对物质财产——对牛、羊、奴隶、子女或妻——行使的统是一样的。我们不能绝对地确定权力的旧的罗马名称,但我们有强有力的理由相信:曼奴斯(manus)能表示各种不同程度的权力,就可知道古代对于权力的一般名词是曼奴斯。但是,当罗马法稍稍进步了后,名称和观念都专门化了。“权力”按照着它所行使的对象而在文字上或在概念上明确地区分了。对物质商品或奴隶行使的权力,成为完全所有权——对儿女,称为家父权——,对那些已被他们的祖先把他们的劳役卖给了别人的自由人,称为曼企帕因——,对其子,则仍然是曼奴斯。可以看到,旧的文字并没有完全废止,只是限制于它以前表示的权限的一种特定的行使上而已。

  这个例子可以使我们理解“契约”和“让与”在历史上所发生的关联的性质。一切要式行为在开始时可能只有一种庄严的仪式,在罗马,它的名称在过去似乎就是耐克逊。过去在让与财产时所用的同样形式,后来似乎就恰恰被用于缔结一个契约。但经过不多时候,我们到达了这样一个时期,当时一个“契约”的观念又被从一个“让与”的观念中分离了出来。这样,就发生了一个双重的变化。“用铜片和衡具”的交易,当它的目的是在移转财产时,采用了一个新的、特殊的名称,“曼企帕地荷”。而古代的“耐克逊”则仍旧用以表示原来的仪式,但这样仪式只被用于使契约庄严化的特殊目的。

  当我们说:在古代二种或三种法律概念往往混合为一,我们的意思并不是在暗示:在这些包括在一起的几个观念之中不可能有一种观念会比其他各种观念古老一些,或者,在几个观念形成时,也不可能有一种观念会较其他观念显著地占优势,并居于它们之上。为什么一个法律概念会继续长期包括几个概念,一个术语会代替几个术语,其理由无疑地是因为在原始社会中,往往在人们有机会注意或给与适当名称之前,法律在实践上很早已发生了变化。虽然我们已说过,“父权”在最初时并不是因它所行使的对象的不同而有所区分,然我确切地感到,“对子女的权力”(Power over Children)实即是古代“权力”概念的基础;我也深信在最早应用“耐克逊”时,也即是在原来应用它的人们的心目中,“耐克逊”的作用是在使财产的移转有适当的庄严仪式。大概“耐克逊”的略微歪曲其原来的职能,最初是为了使它适用于“契约”,而由于它改变的程度十分轻微,所以人们长期没有觉察或注意到。旧的名称仍旧保留着,因为人们没有感觉到他们需要一个新的名称。旧的观念盘踞在人们脑中,因为没有人发现有理由要费心来研究它。这种情况,在“遗嘱” 史中已有了明白的例证。一个“遗嘱”在最初只是简单的财产移转。只在这种特殊让与和一切其他让与之间逐渐发生了巨大的实践上的差别,才使这种让与被分别对待,即使是这样,也还需要经过几个世纪以后,法律改良者才把这名义上的曼企帕地荷,作为无用的累赘而加以清除,并同意在“遗嘱”中除了“遗嘱人”的明白意思外,其他一切都非必要。不幸的是,我们无法以对“遗嘱”的早期史的绝对信心来追溯“契约”的早期史,但我们并非完全没有暗示,说明契约在最初出现时是把耐克逊放在一种新的应用中,后来通过实际试验获得了重要效果,被承认为一种各别的交易。下述过程的描写虽然是出于臆测,但并非全无根据。我们试以一次现款买卖作为“耐克逊”的通常形式。出卖人携带他意欲处分的财产——例如一个奴隶——买受人带来了他用作金钱的粗铜块——还有一个不可缺少的助手,即司秤,他带来了一个天平秤。通过规定手续,奴隶被移交给买受人——铜块经司秤秤过,然后移交给出卖人。在这交易继续进行的过程中,我们称之为耐克逊,买卖的双方是耐克先;但一当交易完成后,耐克逊就告中止,出卖人和买受人即不再具有他们因这暂时关系而产生的名称。在这里,我们试再根据商业史的发展向前跨进一步。假定奴隶是移转了,但没有付钱。在这种情况下,就出卖人说,耐克逊是完成了,并且当他已移交其财产后,他已不再是耐克苏斯(nexus);但就买受人说,耐克逊仍在继续着。就他的部分而论,交易还未完成,他仍被认为是耐克苏斯。因此,可以看到,这同一名词在一方面是指财产品以移转的“让与”,在另一方面又是指债务人对于还没有偿付的买价的个人债务。我们还可以更进一步,假设一种程序是完全属于形式,在这程序中并没有东西移转,也没有东西偿付;这就表明了一种更高级商业活动的交易,一种将来生效的买卖契约(executory Contract of Sale)。

  如果在一般见解和职业见解中,真的都把一个契约长期地认为是一种不完全的让与,这个真理的重要性是有多种理由的。在上一世纪中,有关人类在自然状态中的各种纯理论被概括为这样一个学理,即“在原始社会中财产是不当什么的,被重视的只有债务”,这并非是完全不适当的;但现在可以看到,如果把这个命题颠倒过来,可能会更接近于实际。另一方面,从历史上考虑,“让与”和“契约”在原始时代的联系,说明了某些常被学者和法学家认为特别难以解释的东西,我的意思是指:极古法律制度中一般都对于债务人非常苛酷,并给与债权人以过分的权力。当我们一度懂得了耐克逊是被人为地延长了以使债务人有一定的时间,我们就可以更好地理解他在公众和法律之前的地位。他的负债无疑地被认为是一种变例,而中止付款一般被认为是一种诡计和对于严格的规定的一种歪曲。相反的,凡是在交易中正当地完成其任务的人,必为人所尊重;那就很自然的要使他掌握紧急的武器,以便强使程序完成,这个程序严格地讲,是决不应该准许展期或迟延的。

  因此,“耐克逊”的原意是一种财产让与,在不知不觉中也用来表示一个“契约”,并且,在最后,这个字和一个“契约”观念经常发生联系,不得不用一个特定名词即“曼企帕因”或“曼企帕地荷”来表明真正的“耐克逊”或交易,这样财产是真正的移转了。现在,“契约”便从“让与”中分离出来,它们的历史的第一阶段于是完成了。但它们发展到这样一个时期,即缔约者的允约要比附带进行的手续程序有更高神圣性的时期,则还有很大一段距离。为了说明这一时期中所发生的变化的性质,必须略为越出本文范围之外,研究一下罗马法学专家关于“合意”的分析。这种分析是他们智慧最美丽的纪念碑,在这分析中,我只须约略提一下,它把“债”和 “协议”或“合约”在理论上加以分开。边沁和奥斯丁先生宣称,“一个契约有两个要素:首先,要约者一造表示意向,要做他约定要做的行为或遵守他约定要遵守的不行为。其次,是受约者表示他预期要约者一造履行其提出的允约”。这在实际上是和罗马法律家的学理完全相同的,但在他们的见解中,这些“表示”的结果不是一个“契约”而是一个“协议”或“合约”。一个“合约”是个人相互间同意的极端产物,它显然还不够成为一个“契约”。它最后是否会成为一个“契约”,要看法律是否把一个“债”附加上去。一个“契约”是一个“合约”(或“协议”)加上一个“债”。在这个“合约”还没有附带着“债”的时候,它称为空虚(nude 或naked)合约。

  什么是一个“债”?罗马法律家的定义是:“应负担履行义务的法锁”(Juris vinculum,quo mecessitate ad stringimur alicujus solvenderei)。这个定义通过它们所根据的共同隐喻而把“债”和“耐克逊”联系起来,并明白告诉我们一个特殊概念的体系。“债”是法律用以把人或集体的人结合在一起的“束缚”或“锁链”,作为某种自愿行为的后果。凡引起“债”的效果的行为,主要是那些归类在“契约”和“侵权”、“合意”和“损害”等题目之下的行为;但是有许多其他行为能造成类似后果的,却不能包括在一种确切分类中。应予注意的是,行为并不是由于任何道德上的必要而使它自己负上 “债”的;这是由法律根据其充沛的权力而附加上去的,这是非常有必要加以注意的一点,因为“市民法”的现代解释者有时提出了一个不同的学理,并以他们自己道德的或形而上学的理论来作为支持。法锁的意象沾染了和渗透了罗马“契约”和“侵权”法律的每一个部分。法律把各当事人拘束在一起,锁链只有通过称为清偿(solutio)的程序才能解除,清偿也是一个借喻的用语,英语中的“支付”只偶尔地和它的意义相同。这借喻的意象借以表现其自己的一致性,说明了罗马法律用语上另一个在其他情况下很难解释的特性,即“债”既表示权利,也表示义务,例如使债务清偿之权以及清偿债务的义务。事实上罗马人把“法律上的锁链” 的全貌放在他们的眼前,对其一端的重视不多也不少于其他一端。

  在进步的罗马法中,“协议”在完成以后,几乎在所有情况下,都立即把“债”加上去,于是就成为一个“契约”;这是契约法必然要趋向的结果。但为了进一步研究,我们必须特别注意其中间阶段——即除了一个完全的合意之外,还需要某种东西来吸引“债”的阶段。这个时期,正是把契约分成四类——即“口头契约”、“文书契约”、“要物契约”和“诺成契约”(the Verbal,the Literal,the Real,and the Consensual)——的著名的罗马分类法开始应用的时期,在这个时期内,这四类“契约”也是法律所要强制执行的仅有的四类契约。这个分类的意义,在我们理解了把“债”从“协议”中分离出来的理论后,立即可以理会。每一类的契约实际上都是根据某种手续而命名的,这些手续是除了缔约两造仅仅的合意以外所必需的。在“口头契约”中,一待“协议”完成以后,必须要经过一种言辞的形式才能使法锁附着在它上面。在“文书契约”中,登入总帐簿或记事簿能使“协议” 具有“债”的效力,在“要物契约”的情况下,送达作为预约主体的“物”时,才产生同样的结果。总之,在每一种情况下,缔约的两造必须达到一种谅解;但是,如果他们不再前进,他们在相互之间即不负义务,不能强迫履行或在违背信约时要求救济。但如果他们遵守了某种规定的手续,“契约”就立即完成,并以所采取的特殊方式作为它的名称。

  至于这种实践的例外,将在下文中加以详述。

  在前面,我是根据历史顺序而列举四类“契约”的,但罗马教科书的著者并不都是一成不变地按照这个顺序的。“口头契约”是四类契约中最古的一类,并且是原始“耐克逊”最早的已知的后裔,这是毫无可疑的。古代采用的“口头契约”有好几种,但其中最重要的、并为我们的权威学者讨论到的唯一的一种是用约定的方法来达成的,所谓约定,就是一“问”一 “答”;即由要求允约的人提出问题,并由作出允约的人给予回答。这个问题和回答,像我刚才解释过的,构成了原始观念中除了有关系的人们的单纯的合意之外所必需的额外要素。它们成为“债”借以附加上去的媒介。古代的“耐克逊”现在已经传给较成熟的法律学的,第一件就是锁链的概念,它把缔约两造结合起来,而这就成为“债”。其次传下来的是仪式的观念,它伴随着同时尊崇着定约,这个仪式已变化而成为“约定”。原来“耐克逊”的主要特点是庄严让与,这种庄严让与转变为单纯的问题和回答,如果我们没有罗马“遗嘱”史来启发我们,将始终是一个秘密。读了那些历史,我们可以懂得正式的“让与”怎样先从和手中交易有直接关系的手续程序中分离开来,后来又完全都省略了。在当时,“约定”的问和答既然无疑地是一种最简单形式的“耐克逊”,我们可以认为这种问和答实早已带有一种专门形式的性质。如果认为它们所以为早期的罗马法律家所欢迎,完全是由于它们能使协议合意的人们有机会来考虑和回想,这是错误的。无可否认,它们有这样一种的价值,这是逐渐被承认的;但根据我们权威著作的陈述,有证据证明它们有关“契约”的职能在起先是形式的和仪式的,并不是每一个问题和回答都是自古以来就足以构成一个“约定”的,只有用特别适宜于特定情况的专门术语表白的一个问题和回答,才能构成一个“约定”。

  为了正确理解契约法史,虽然必须把“约定”理解为:在它被承认为一种有用的担保之前,它只是一种庄严的形式,但是,在另一方面,如果对它的真正用度视若无睹,也将是错误的。“口头契约”虽然已不象古代那样重要,但它一直被保存到罗马法律学的最后时期;我们可以视作当然的,在罗马法上没有一种制度如此长期的保存着,除非它在实践上确有些用处。我在一个英国著者的文章中看到他对罗马人甚至在最早时期也满足于这种对匆忙和缺乏深思熟虑之处,如此疏于防范的情况,表示十分惊奇。但是如果把约定详细研究一下,并且记着在我们所涉及的社会状态里面,书面证据是很不容易得到的,那末我以为,我们必须承认这种专门用以满足它所要求达到的目的的这种问题和回答,可以公允地认为是一种高度巧妙的办法。允约人以约定人的资格把契约中所有的条款用一个问题的形式提出,要约人给予回答。“你是否同意在某某地点某某日期送达给我某某一个奴隶?”“我同意。”现在,我们试想一想,我们可以看到,这个“债”把允约用问句的形式提出来,就把两造的自然地位给颠倒过来了,并且由于有效地破坏了会话的行程,使人注意不到滑过一个危险的质权。对于我们,一般说来,一个口头允约是完全从要约人的话中得来的。在古罗马法中,另一个步骤是绝对需要的,即允约人在达到合意后必须把所有条件综合在一个庄严的问句中;并且,在审判时,必须提出的证据,就是这个问句以及对这问句的同意——而不是允约,允约本身是没有拘束力的。这个看上去无足轻重的特点,在契约法的用语中竟有这样大的关系,这是罗马法律学的初学者迅速感觉到的,他们最初碰到的绊脚石之一几乎普遍地是由它产生的。当我们在英文中提到一个契约时,为便利偏见,偶然把它和契约两造的一方联系起来时——例如,如果我们想一般地提到一个缔约人 ——,我们的话所指的总是要约人。但罗马人的一般用语则转向不同的一面;它总是从允约人的地位来看契约的,如果我们可以这样说的话。在谈到一个契约的一造时,主要谈到的总是“约定人”,即提出问题的人。至于约定的用处,其最生动的实例可参见拉丁喜剧家的集子。如果有这些段落的全部场面经通读一过〔例如,普罗塔斯(Plautus)的“说谎者”(Pseudolus)幕一景一;幕四景六:“三个铜钱”(Trinummus )幕五景二〕,就可以看到思考允约的人的注意力是如何有效地为问题所吸引,以及从一个没有预先考虑好的应承中撤退的机会是如何的充足。

  在“文书”或“书面契约”中,一个“债”通过了它而加于“协议”上的正式行为是把可以明白确定的欠款数目登入一本总帐的借方。为了要说明这种“契约”,必须了解罗马的家庭状态,古代簿记的有条不紊性质和非常的有规律性。古罗马法中有几个小困难,例如,象“奴隶特有产”的性质,只有在我们回想起:在一个罗马家庭中,所有成员都严格地对其户主负责,以及家庭中每笔收支在登入草帐后,在一定期间内必须转入家庭总帐,只有明了了这些,才能解释清楚。可是,就我们所看到的“文书契约”的描写中,是有些不易明了之处的,原因是登帐的习惯在后来已不普遍了,而“文书契约”的用语成了表示和原来所理解的完全不同的一种定约的形式。因此,我们无法说明,关于原始“文书契约”,“债”的设定究竟是由债权人一方简单的登入簿据,还是必须获得债务人的同意或在其自己的簿据中同样登记,才能发生法律效力。但是有一个主要之点是可以确定的,即在这种“契约”中,只要条件遵守了,所有的手续都可以省却。这是契约法历史中向前推进的另一步。

  根据历史顺序,其次一种“契约”是“要物契约”,表示在伦理概念上向前跨进一大步。凡是在任何合意中,以送达一种特殊物件为其目的的——绝大部分的简单合意都属此类——,一待送达确实发生后,“债”即产生。其结果必定是对最古的有关“契约”观念的一个重大革新;因为在原始时代,毫无疑义,当缔约的一造由于疏忽而没有把他的合意通过约定的手续,则按照合意而做的一切,将不为法律所承认。借钱的人除非经过正式的约定,是不能诉请偿还的。但在“要物契约”中,一方的履行就允许使他方负担法律责任——则显然是基于伦理的根据。第一次把道德上的考虑认为“契约”法中的一个要素,这就是“要物契约”和前两种不同之处,并不是由于专门形式或由于遵从罗马家庭习惯而有所不同。

  我们现在要讨论第四类或“诺成契约”,这是各种契约中最有趣和最重要的一种。在这名称下有四种特殊“契约”:委任(Mandatum)即“受托”(Commission)或“代理” (Agency):“合伙(Societas):”买卖“(Emtio Venditio);以及”租赁“(Locatio Conductio)。在前面几页说明了一个”契约“是附加着一个”债“的一个”合约“或”协议“后,我曾提到通过一些行为或手续法律允许”债“吸收入 ”合约“内。我这样说,只是为了作一般的说明,但除非我们把这理解为不但包括正面的,而且也包括反面的,则这个说明不是严格地正确的。因为,实质上,这些 ”诺成契约“的特点是:从”合约“中产生这些契约,是无需任何手续的。关于”诺成契约“,很多是难以辩解的,更多是含糊不清的,甚至曾有这样的说法,即在这些契约中,缔约两造的同意比在其他任何种类的合意中更为着重。但”诺成“的这个名词不过表示:在这里,”债“是立即附着于诺成(Consensus)的。

  “诺成”或两造的相互同意是“协议”中最后的和最主要的要素,而属于“买卖”、“合伙”、“委任”和“租赁”四类之一的合意,它的特点是:一经两造同意提供了这个要素时,一个“契约”立即成立。“诺成”带来了“债”,在特种交易中,执行着在其他契约中由要物(Res)或口头约定(Verba stipulations)以及由文书(Liter)或书面登入总帐而履行的同样职能。“诺成”因此是一个名词,并无细微的变例,而正是和“要物”、“口头”及“文书”完全相类似的。

  在生活的接触中,最普通和最重要的一种契约无疑是那称为“诺成”的第四种。每一个社会的集体生存,其较大部分是消耗在买卖、租赁、为了商业目的而进行的人与人之间的联合、一个人对另一个人的商业委托等等交易中;这无疑是使罗马人象大多数社会一样,考虑到把这些交易从专门手续的累赘中解脱出来,并尽可能使社会运动最有效的泉源不至阻塞。这类动机当然不以罗马人为限,而罗马人和其邻国人通商贸易,必然使他们有丰富的机会看到在我们面前的各种契约到处都有变成诺成的倾向,即一经表示相互同意立即具有拘束力。于是,依靠他们通常的实践,他们就把这些契约称为万民法契约。但我们并不以为它们在很早时期就有这个名称。一个“万民法”的最早观念也许在委任一个“外事裁判官”之前早就存在罗马法律家的心中,但只有通过广泛的和正常的贸易,罗马法律家才能熟悉其他意大利社会的契约制度,而这类贸易在意大利获得彻底平靖和罗马的最高权力断然确立之前,是很难达到相当的规模的。虽然,极端可能,“诺成契约”是罗马制度中最后出生的,并且虽然很可能万民法这个称呼证明它渊源并不太古,但把这些契约归属于“国际法”的这个用语,却在现代产生了它们来自非常古远的年代的看法。因为,当“国际法”变为“自然法”时,似乎就含有了这样的意思,即 “诺成契约”是最适合于自然状态的一种合意;于是,产生了这独特的信念,即文明愈年轻,它的契约形式一定愈简单。

  “诺成契约”在数量上是极端有限的。但是,毫无疑义它在“契约”法史上开创一个新的阶段,所有现代契约概念都是从这个阶段发轫的。意志的运动构成合意,它现在完全孤立了,成为另外一种考虑的主题;在契约的观点上,形式全部被消除了,外部行为只是看做内部意志行为的象征。“诺成契约”被归类在“万民法”中,并且这种分类在不久以后即得出了这样一个推理,认为它们是代表定约的一种合意,为“自然”所认可并包括在自然法典中的。当到达这一点时,我们就可以看到在罗马法律家中有几个著名的学理和区分。其中之一是“自然债”和“民事债”(Natural and Civil Obligations)之间的区分。当一个智力完全成熟的人有意使其自己受到一个合意的约束,即使他并没有履行某种必要的手续以及由于某种技术上的障碍,他缺少了制订一个有效契约的正式能力,他仍被称为在一个自然债之下。法律(而这就是区分所暗示的)不强制执行债,但它也不绝对拒绝承认它;自然债在许多方面和纯粹是无效的债又有不同,尤其是在这样的情况下,即如果缔结契约的能力在后来取得时,自然债就可以在民事上得到批准。法学专家另外一种很奇怪的学理,其渊源不可能早于“协议”从“契约”的专门要素中分离出来的时期。根据这些法学专家的意见,虽然只有“契约”能作为一个诉讼的基础,但一个单纯的“合约”或“协议”可以作为一个抗辩的根据。由此推论,虽然一个人由于在事前没有注意遵照正当形式使一个合意成熟为一个“契约”的话,不能就根据这个合意而提起诉讼,但根据一个有效契约而提出的请求,只要经证明有一个还没有超过一个简单协议状态的反合意,就可以癖驳了。例如回复债务之诉可以提供一个仅仅放弃或延期付款的非正式合意作为抗辩。

  上面所说的学理,表示出“裁判官”在向其最伟大的革新前进时所发生的迟疑。他们关于“自然法”的理论必定曾经引导他们特别偏爱“诺成契约”以及“诺成契约”仅仅是其中的特殊例子之一的那些“合约”或“协议”;但是他们不敢立即把“诺成契约”的自由推及一切“协议”。他们利用了从罗马法开始时就托付给他们的对于诉讼程序的那时特殊监督权,并且,虽然他们不准提出不是根据正式契约的一个诉讼,但在导演诉讼程序的秘密舞台中,他们使其新的合意理论有充分活动的余地。但当他们进展到这样的程度后,不可避免地他们一定要向前再进一步。当有一年的“裁判官”在“告令”中宣称:他将对还没有成熟为“契约”的“合约”赋与可衡平的诉讼,只要争执中的 “合约”是根据一个要因(Causa)的话,在这时候,古代“契约”法的革命就完成了。

  这类的“合约”在进步的罗马法律学中始终是被强行的。其原则是把“诺成契约”达到其适当后果的原则;事实上,如果罗马人的专门用语具有象他们的法律理论所具有的那样的可塑性,这些由“裁判官”强行的“合约”就可能称为新的“契约”,新的“诺成契约”。但,法律语法是最后变更的法律的一部分,而可衡平地强行的“合约” 继续被简单地称为“裁判官合约”。必须注意,除非在“合约”中有要因,这“合约”就新的法律学而论,将继续是空虑的;要使它能具有效力,就必须用一个约定来使它变为一个“口头契约”。

  我所以这样详细的讨论它,主要由于我认为这“契约”史有非常的重要性,它可以用来防止无可数计的误会。在这讨论中,详细说明了从一个伟大的法律学里程碑到另一个里程碑中各种观念的进程。我们由“耐克逊”开始,其中“契约”和“让与”是混杂在一起的,其中伴随着合意的手续形式甚至比合意本身还要重要。从“耐克逊”,我们转到“约定”,这是较古仪式的一个简单形式。其次发现的是“文书契约”,在这里,一切的手续都被放弃了,如果合意的证据能从一个罗马家庭的严格遵守的习惯中提出来。在“要物契约”中,第一次承认了一个道德责任,凡是参加或同意一个定约的部分履行的人们,就不许由于形式上的缺陷而否认它。最后,出现了“诺成契约”,其中唯一被重视的是缔约人的心理状态,至于外界情况除非作为内在企图的证据外是不予注意的。罗马人的思想从一个粗糙的观念到一个精练的观念的这种进步,究竟是否能例证人类思想在 “契约”这主题上有了必要的进步,这当然是无法断定的。除了罗马人之外,所有其他古代社会的“契约”法或者太少了,没有充足的资料,或者是已经完全失传了;至于现代法律学则是如此透澈地为罗马观点所影响,以致我们无法获得对比和类似,并从中吸取教训。但是,从我所描写的演变中既缺乏任何剧烈的、惊奇的以及不易理解的东西,我们就可以合理地相信,在某种程度上,古罗马“契约”史是其他古代社会中这类法律概念的历史的典型。但也只是在某种程度上,罗马法的进步可以被用来代表其他法律学制度的进步。“自然”法的理论是专属于罗马人的。法锁的观念,就我所知,也是专属于罗马人的。成熟的罗马的“契约和侵权”法中有许多特点,都来自上述的两种观念,或则来自其一,或则两者兼而有之,因此,这许多特点也是属于一特定社会的专门产物。这些后期法律概念是重要的,不是因为这些概念代表了在一切条件下思想发展的必然结果,而是因为它们对现代世界的智力素质起了十分巨大的影响。

  罗马法尤其是罗马“契约法”以各种思想方式、推理方法和一种专门用语贡献给各种各样的科学,这确是最令人惊奇的事。在曾经促进现代人的智力欲的各种主题中,除了“物理学”外,没有一门科学没有经过罗马法律学滤过的。纯粹的“形而上学”诚然是来自希腊而不是来自罗马的,但是“政治学”、“道德哲学”甚至“神学”不但在罗马法中找到了表意的工具,并且以罗马法为其最深奥的研究养育成长的一个卵巢。为了要说明这种现象,并没有绝对必要讨论文字和观念之间的神秘关系,或是说明人类的心神如何从来没有能抓住任何思想主题,除非它在事前就具有适当丰富的用语或能掌握一种适当的逻辑方法的工具。只须说明,当东方和西方世界的哲学兴趣分离时,西方思想的始创者都属于讲拉丁语和用拉丁语著作的一个社会。但是在西方各省中,能够很精确地用来研究哲学的唯一语言是罗马法的语言,它由于独特的机会,几乎保留了奥古斯多时代所有的纯洁性,而地方拉丁则正在退化为怪异的不纯正的一种方言。如果罗马法律学提供了语言上唯一的正确的媒介,更重要的,是它同时提供了思想上唯一的正确、精密深邃的媒介。因为哲学和科学在西方不能立足,至少有三个世纪之久;并且虽然大多数罗马人的精力都集中在形而上学和形而上学的神学上面,但这些热情的研究中所用的语法完全是希腊的,而它们的活动场所是帝国的东半部。有时,东方争论者所获得的结论非常重要,以致不论是同意或是不同意这些结论的人都必须把它们记录下来,后来东方争论的结果就被介绍到西方来,对于这些结果,西方一般都予以默认,不赞许亦不拒绝。在这时候,有一个研究部门,虽是最勤劳的人也感到困难,最精细的人也感到深奥,最精巧的人也感到细致的,但对于西方各省受过教育的阶级却从来没有失掉过它的吸引力。对阿非利加、西班牙、高卢和北意大利的有教养的公民,正是法律学,并且也只有法律学,代替了诗歌和历史、哲学和科学。西方思想在其最早的对于明显的法律面貌的努力中不但毫无一些神秘之处,并且,如果我们以为它会有其他任何色彩,也将是令人惊奇的。我所认为可怪的是,由于一种新要素的出现而在西方和东方观念之间、西方和东方神学之间引起的区别,竟然很少人注意。正是由于法律学的影响开始变得非常有力,才使君士坦丁堡的建立和后来的西罗马帝国从东罗马帝国分离,成为哲学史中的两个新纪元。但是,由于来自“罗马法律”的各种观念已和日常的观念非常密切地混杂在一起,大陆思想家无疑地不容易体会到这个重要关头的重要姓。另一方面,英国人对这一点也是视若无睹的,这是由于他们对于他们自己承认的现代知识潮流的最丰富渊源和罗马文明的一个智慧的成果,极端无知。在同时,一个费尽心力熟悉古典罗马法的英国人,由于其本国人对这主题向来极少兴趣,对于我胆敢提出的主张,他比起法国人或德国人来也许是一个更好的鉴定家。任何一个知道罗马法律学是怎样一回事的人,知道确实由罗马人实践的罗马法律学的人,并且要观察最古的西方神学及哲学在那些特点上不同于它们之前的思想状态的人,对于这已经开始透入和支配着纯理论的新要素究竟是什么,都可以有资格加以说明。

  罗马法中对其他研究主题有最广泛影响的部分是“债”法,或是接近于“债”法的部分,即“契约和侵权”法。罗马制度中这一部分丰富的术语,它所能用以履行的职能,罗马人本身并不是不知道的,这从他们把这个特别形容词准字用在“准契约”和“准侵权”等名词中,就可以得到证明。

  “准” 在这样的用法中,完全是一个分类的名词。英国评论家常认为“准契约”就是默约,但这是错误的,因为默约是真的契约而准契约则不是契约。在默约中,行为和情况是用作为某些要素的象征,这些要素在明约中是用文字来象征的;就合意的理论而论,一个人所用的究竟是这一套象征还是另一套象征,是毫无关系的。但是一个 “准契约”完全不是一个契约。这类准契约中最普通的例子,象一个人误以金钱给付另一个人因而在这两人之间存在的关系。法律为了顾全道德上的利益,使受领人负有偿还的责任,但根据这交易的性质,表示出这并不是一个契约,因为,在这中间,缺乏作为“契约”最重要要素的“协议”。“准”这个字放在罗马法的一个名词之前,含有这样一种意思,即用它作为标志的概念和其原来的概念之间,在比较上有着一种强有力的表面类比或相似。它的意思并不是说,这两种概念是同样的,或是属于同一种类的。相反地,它否定了在它们之间存在着同一性的观念;但是它指出它们有充分的相似之处,可以把其中之一归类为另一个的连续,以及从法律的一个部门中取来的用语可以移用到法律的另外一个部门,并加以应用,而不致对规定的说明有强烈的歪曲,而这些规定在另一种情况下是很难完善地加以说明的。

  有人这样乖巧地提出,“默约”是真正的契约,“准契约”完全不是契约,在这两者之间所存在的混淆不清,和把政治上的权利和义务归因于被统治者和统治者之间的一个“原始契约” (Original Compact)的这个著名错误,有很多共同之点。早在这理论获得定形之前,罗马契约法的用语大部分用来描写人类所常常设想的存在于君主和臣民之间的权利和义务上的相互关系。当世界上充满了各式各样的格言,极端断然地提出国王的主张应该绝对服从,——这些格言佯称来自“新约全书”,而实际上却是来自凯撒暴政的难忘回忆——如果罗马“债”法没有提供一种言语,能隐约表示当时还没有完全发展的一种观念,则被统治者应该享有相关权利的思想,将完全没有表达的可能。我认为国王的特权和国王对其臣民的义务两者之间的互不相容,自从西方历史开始以来是从来没有忘却过的,但在封建制度继续盛行之际,除了纯理论著作家外,这是绝少为人所注意的,因为封建制度通过明白的习惯有效地控制着欧洲多数君主,使不能有过分的理论上的权利。但是当封建制度衰亡、中世纪的组织脱出工作常规、以及宗教改革使教皇的权威不复为人所信任时,国王有神权的学理就显著地立即提高到它以前从来没有达到过的重要地位。它所获得的声价必须常常求助于罗马法的用语,而原来带有神学面貌的一种争论逐渐一天天地取得了一种法律争辩的色彩。于是出现了一种曾在意见史中不断重复出现的现象。正当君主权主张逐渐发展而成为菲尔美的学理时,从“契约法”中借用来的原来作为保护臣民权利的用语竟成为国王和人民间一个现实的原始契约的学说,这一个学说首先在英国人手中,后来、特别是在法国人手中发展成为社会和法律一切现象的一种广博的解释。但是政治学和法律学之间仅有的真正的联系,是在后者把其独特地有可塑性的术语的好处给与了前者。罗马“契约”法律学对君主和臣民关系上所作出的贡献,正和在一个比较狭小范围内、它对于为一个“准契约”责任拘束在一起的人们的关系上所作出的贡献完全相同。罗马“契约”法律学提供了一套文字和成语,充分正确地接近当时对于政治责任问题所具有的各种观念。一个“原始契约”学理所处的地位,从未能高过怀威尔博士(Dr.Whewell)所提出的,他的意见是:这个学理虽然是不够健全的,但“它可能是表示道德真理的一种方便的形式”。

  在“原始契约”发明之前把法律用语广泛应用于政治主题上以及“原始契约”这个假定在后来所发生的有力影响,充分说明了在政治学中有着大量的为罗马法律学所独特创造的文字和概念。它们也大量地存在“道德哲学”中,这可能有不同的解释,这是由于罗马法比政治理论受到伦理著作更直接的贡献,而这些伦理著作的著者也更加自觉到他们责任的范围。在谈到道德哲学特别应该归功于罗马法律家时,我所指的应该是未经康德(Kant)中断其历史以前的道德哲学,即研究人类行为规则的一种科学,适当地解释这些规则的科学,以及这些规则应受的限制的科学。在“批判哲学”(Critical Philosophy)兴起后,道德学的旧有意义几乎完全丧失,除了由罗马天主教神学者仍旧研究的诡辩学中用一种降格的形式保留着之外,道德学似乎已普遍被认为只是本体论研究(ontological inquiry)的一个部门了。除怀威尔博士一人外,我在当时的英国著者中找不到一个人,他把道德哲学理解为在它被形而上学所吸收之前以及在它的规定的基础变成为比其规定本身更为重要的问题之前,为人们所理解的那样。可是,只要伦理科

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